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A further difference between period 2 elements and others, particularly carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, lies in their propensity to form multiple bonds. The compounds formed by these elements often exhibit unique stoichiometries and structures, which are not commonly found in elements from lower periods, such as the various nitrogen oxides. [96] Property overlaps with metals [ edit ]
Origin and use of the term [ edit ] An extract from the English translation of Lavoisier's Traité élémentaire de chimie (1789), [226] listing the elemental gases oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen (and erroneously including light and caloric), and the nonmetallic substances sulfur, phosphorus, and carbon, and including the chloride, fluoride and borate ions a set of chemically strong halogen elements—fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine—sometimes referred to as nonmetal halogens [116] or halogen nonmetals [117] (as used here) or stable halogens; [118]
What are Metals?
The isolation of halogen nonmetals from their halides involved techniques including electrolysis, acid addition, or displacement. These efforts were not without peril, as some chemists tragically [220] lost their lives in their pursuit of isolating fluorine. [221] Cousins DM, Davidson MG & García-Vivó D 2013, "Unprecedented participation of a four-coordinate hydrogen atom in the cubane core of lithium and sodium phenolates", Chemical Communications, vol. 49, doi: 10.1039/C3CC47393G
Janas D, Cabrero-Vilatela, A & Bulmer J 2013, "Carbon nanotube wires for high-temperature performance", Carbon, vol. 64, pp.305–314, doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2013.07.067 Kugler HK & Keller C (eds) 1985, Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic and Organometallic chemistry, 8th ed., "At, Astatine", system no. 8a, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, ISBN 3-540-93516-9 Physically, fluorine and chlorine exist as pale yellow and yellowish-green gases, respectively, while bromine is a reddish-brown liquid, typically covered by a layer of its fumes; iodine, when observed under white light, appears as a metallic-looking [102] solid. Electrically, the first three elements function as insulators while iodine behaves as a semiconductor (along its planes). [147]For a related comparison of the properties of metals, metalloids, and nonmetals, see Rudakiya & Patel (2021), p. 36 Clugston MJ & Flemming R 2000, Advanced Chemistry, Oxford University Press, Oxford, ISBN 978-0-19-914633-8 Hussain et al. 2023, "Tuning the electronic properties of molybdenum di-sulphide monolayers via doping using first-principles calculations", Physica Scripta, vol. 98, no. 2, doi: 10.1088/1402-4896/acacd1
Xenon, one of the rarest elements on Earth, [213] finds use in high-intensity discharge lamps for bright white light in automotive headlights and marine lighting. Additionally, it serves as a contrast agent in medical imaging techniques like xenon computed tomography and xenon-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. In space exploration, xenon is a propellant for ion thrusters, known for their efficiency. [214] Hérold A 2006, "An arrangement of the chemical elements in several classes inside the periodic table according to their common properties", Comptes Rendus Chimie, vol. 9, no. 1, doi: 10.1016/j.crci.2005.10.002 Chambers C & Holliday AK 1982, Inorganic Chemistry, Butterworth & Co., London, ISBN 978-0-408-10822-5 Atkins P, Overton T, Rourke J, Weller M & Armstrong F 2006, Shriver & Atkins' Inorganic Chemistry, 4th ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, ISBN 0-7167-4878-9 Iodine is sufficiently corrosive to cause lesions resembling thermal burns, if handled without suitable protection, [108] and tincture of iodine will smoothly dissolve Au. [109] That said, while "F, Cl and Br will all oxidize Fe 2+ (aq) to Fe 3+(aq) ... iodine ... is such a [relatively] weak oxidizing agent that it cannot remove electrons from Fe(II) ions to form Fe(III) ions." [110] Thus, for the reaction X 2 + 2e − → 2X −(aq) the reduction potentials are F +2.87 V; Cl +1.36; Br +1.09; I +0.54. Here Fe 3+ + e − → Fe 3+ +0.77. [111] Thus F 2, Cl 2 and Br 2 will oxidize Fe 2+ to Fe 3+ but Fe 3+ will oxidize I − to I 2. Iodine has previously been referred to as a moderately strong oxidizing agent. [112]
Bladel WJ 1949, Nuclear Chemistry: Notes on a Series of Lectures, Atomic Energy Commission, Oak Ridge, Tennessee Varying configurations of these nonmetals have been referred to as, for example, basic nonmetals, [119] bioelements, [120] central nonmetals, [121] CHNOPS, [122] essential elements, [123] "non-metals", [124] [n 18] orphan nonmetals, [125] or redox nonmetals [126]
Benner SA, Ricardo A & Carrigan MA 2018, "Is there a common chemical model for life in the universe?", in Cleland CE & Bedau MA (eds.), The Nature of Life: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives from Philosophy and Science, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ISBN 978-1-108-72206-3 Atkins PA & Overton T 2010, Shriver & Atkins' Inorganic Chemistry, 5th ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, ISBN 978-0-19-923617-6 Up until the Middle Ages the classification of minerals remained largely unchanged, albeit with varying terminology. In the fourteenth century, an English alchemist named Richardus Anglicus expanded upon the classification of minerals in his work Correctorium Alchemiae. In this text, he proposed the existence of two primary types of minerals. The first category, which he referred to as "major minerals", included well-known metals such as gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, and iron. On the other hand, the second category, labeled as "minor minerals", encompassed substances like salts, atramenta ( iron sulfate), alums, vitriol, arsenic, orpiment, sulfur, and similar substances that were not metallic bodies. [228]Maosheng M 2020, "Noble gases in solid compounds show a rich display of chemistry with enough pressure", Frontiers in Chemistry, vol. 8, doi: 10.3389/fchem.2020.570492 Lewis RS & Deen WM 1994,"Kinetics of the reaction of nitric oxide with oxygen in aqueous solutions", Chemical Research in Toxicology, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 568–574, doi: 10.1021/tx00040a013
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